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Superior orders, often known as the Nuremberg defence, lawful orders or by the German phrase Befehl ist Befehl ("only following orders", literally "an order is an order"), is a plea in a court of law that a person, whether a member of the armed forces or a civilian, not be held guilty for actions which were ordered by a superior officer or a public official.〔''See'' L.C. Green, ''Superior Orders in National and International Law'', (A.W. Sijthoff International Publishing Co., Netherlands, 1976)〕〔Mark J. Osiel, Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, and the Law of War'', (Transactions Publishers, New Brunswick, N.J., 1999).〕 The superior orders plea is often regarded as the complement to command responsibility.〔''See'' James B. Insco, ''Defense of Superior Orders Before Military Commissions'', Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, 13 DUKEJCIL 389 (Spring, 2003). Asserting in the author's view that a ''respondeat superior'' approach to superior orders is an "underinclusive extreme".〕 One of the most noted uses of this plea, or "defense", was by the accused in the 1945–46 Nuremberg Trials, such that it is also called the "Nuremberg defense". The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the main victorious Allied forces after World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany. It was during these trials, under the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal which set them up, that the defense of superior orders was no longer considered enough to escape punishment; but merely enough to lessen punishment.〔H.T. King, Jr., ''The Legacy of Nuremberg'', Case Western Journal of International Law, Vol. 34. (Fall 2002) at pg. 335.e〕 Historically, the plea of superior orders has been used both before and after the Nuremberg Trials, with a notable lack of consistency in various rulings. Apart from the specific plea of superior orders, discussions about how the general concept of superior orders ought to be used, or ought not to be used, have taken place in various arguments, rulings and statutes that have not necessarily been part of “after the fact” war crimes trials, strictly speaking. Nevertheless, these discussions and related events help us understand the evolution of the specific plea of superior orders and the history of its usage. ==History before 1900== 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Superior orders」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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